gold in sudan

Processing Gum Arabic




Introduction:

Gum Arabic is one of the most important cash-generating export crop in Sudan. It is one of the best of its type in the world. The project aims at processing gum Arabic, locally, to improve exports and benefit from the value-added.
- The sites producing gum Arabic in Sudan:

- Kordofan region 49.3%

- Kassala region 24.4%

- Darfur region 23.4 %

- White and Blue Nile region 2.9%

- The proposed sites for erecting the project:

Near the production collection regions.

- The productive capacity: 4000 tons per year.

- Methods of gum Arabic processing:

- The mechanical method.

- The method of sprinkle drying.

- The mechanical Method:

- Preliminary cleaning unit.

- Air cleaning and sorting unit

- Breaker.

- Refining mill and granules production mill.

- Conveyor belts.

- Packing unit with weighing machine.

- Quality control laboratory.

- Electrical control panel.

-The sprinkle Drying Method Equipment

- Dissolving container.

- Sifters with various openings.

- Sedimentation cylinder and the solution concentration cylinder.

- Drying and spraying unit.

- Cylinder drying unit.

- Solar energy unit for heating water.

- Cleaning and sorting unit.

- Quality control laboratory.

Area : Estimated at 800 m2 ; as follows:-

144 m2 Production hall.

280 m2 First cleaning shed.

48 m2 Second cleaning shed

250 m2 Stores

75 m2 Offices + utilities

Invested capital : US $ 6.628.032

Operating capital : US $ 192.247

Fixed Assets : US $ 150.735

Net profits : US $843.561

Profitability : 10 %


Period of Re-imbursement : 2 years



Raw Materials : gum Arabic – packing materials (Jute sacks)



Contact Address:



Investment Department,



Federal Ministry of Industry



Tel : 0249183777770



The Processing of Basic Chlorine



Introduction:



The Sudan is distinguished by its Red Sea shore, which provides salt. This encourage the establishment of a basic chlorine plant for the production of the following:-



- Caustic Soda: which is used in numerous industries, such as, textiles, industrial detergents, soap, edible oil refining and other industries which benefit from the characteristic of bleaching of the caustic soda.



- Chlorine: Which is used in many fields; such as, the water purifying and sterilization networks, the sewerage system networks and several other uses which benefit from the characteristic of chlorine as a disinfectant and insecticider.



- Hydrochloric acid (HCL): which is widely used as a multi-purpose acid. It is also used in large quantities for purifying the calcium carbonates from the bottom of oil wells and in petroleum refineries.



- Sodium hypochlorine: Which is used in the Weaving and spinning industry; and other purposes which benefit from its characteristic as a bleacher and pesticider.



- Productive capacity:



· Caustic soda 5 tons/day.



· Chlorine 5 tons/day.



· Hydrochloric acid 5 tons/day.



· Sodium Hypochlorine 5 tons/day.



- Invested capital US $ 2.700.000



- Raw materials:



- Sodium chloride.



- Phosphoric acid.



- Soda dust.



- Hydrochloric acid.



- Electricity.



- Man-power:



35 (direct and direct labour).



- Area of plant: 6560 m2.



- Location : It is preferred that the project shall be close to salt sources (i.e. Eastern Sudan.).



- Project’s Product users:



- Edible oil plants..



- Petroleum fields.



- Weaving and spinning plants.



- Water distribution networks.



- The average imported amounts during the last three years:-



2000 tons




- Contact Address:



The Investment Department,



Federal Ministry of Industry,



Tel: 0249 183 777770



Assembly and manufacture of



Solar Energy Equipments



Introduction:



God endowed the Sudan with a climate of less clouds and much sunshine throughout the year, therefore the Sudan is considered an ideal place for the system of transferring the light of the sun to electricity.



The Invested capital: 673653000 Sudanese Dinar



Machineries and Equipments:



- Assembly of Solar cells.



- Liquid batteries.



- Tools and Equipments.



Total cost of Machineries and Equipments:



122,000,000 Sudanese Dinar



Cost of raw materials for One Operational year:



150,000,000 Sudanese Dinar



Recovery Period: Two years



Contact Address:



Department of Investment ,



Federal Ministry of Industry



Tel: 0249183777770



Calcium Carbonate Manufacture



Introduction:



The lime stone is composed of the matter of calcium carbonate which could be grinded and purified for the extraction of pure powder of calcium carbonate, which is used in filling the plastic pipes and the plastic utensils, and also it is used in the production of insecticides and tooth paste, in addition to its use in cultivation and animal husbandry.



The proposed productive capacity: 20 ton/day.



The Investment Capital: 1,500,000 US Dollar.



The raw materials: Lime stone



The volume of employment: 450 direct and indirect employees.



The establishment area: The total area of the project is 35,000 m2.



The Location: It is preferable to establish the project near the areas where the raw materials are available and they are: Gabalain province, ‘Gabalain ‘town’ Atbara town, Sennar, Jabal Marra and any areas where the lime stone is discovered.



The Users of the Production:



- Plastic pipes production Factories.



- Plastic house utensils production Factories.



- Insecticides poweder production factories.



- Tooth paste production factories.



- The farmers.



Average of the Imported quantities during the last three years:214tons



Contact address: Investment Department:



The Federal Ministry of Industry,



Tel: 0249183777770




Concentrated Feed Manufacture



Introduction: The concentrated feed are protein and hydrocarbonic materials produced from the agricultural and processing remains and they wore divided into:



(a) Animal feed: They use the residues of legumes. Couch grass straw, Durra reeds, rice straw, residues of oil seeds like cotton seed, peanuts husks sesame sunflower, beans and the retuse of sugar factories such as Mollas, bugas and cane heads.



(b) Poultry feed: Contains fish powder, meat and bones powder and other animal remains like blood in addition to some materials used in Animal feed.



The targeted market: To cover the local market and exportation to the African and Arab countries.



The Productive capacity:



The proposed: 15,000 ton/year



The invested capital: estimated USD 1,550,000



The raw materials: Oil cake of cotton seed, wheat bran, bugas, Molas, pea-nuts husk, Dhura stalks, Calcium carbonates,



Table salt and vitamins.



The Premises area: 2200 m2



The Working force: 35 direct and indirect workers.



Average of imported quantities during the last three years:3503tons



Contact Address: Investment Department



Federal Ministry of Industry.



Tel : 0249183777770







Gold Processing Project



Umm Nyardi Mine



Location: North Wadi Half town



Annual Mining Capacity:



The Project target the mining and processing of 700 Kilograms annually.



Investment Costs: about USD 90 millions, Annual costs of production. USD 2.5 millions.



Annual Sales Returns: USD 7 million, net profits : USD 4.5millions.



Financial indicators: Net profits ratio to sales : 64%



Capital Recovery Period : about two years.



Contact Address: Investment Department



River Nile State



Tel : 0211822557







Glass Production Project



Location of the Project: Mattama Area



Mining capacity: 150 ton/per day



Project sales returns : Amounts to 17,4 million us Dollar.



Annual Production costs for the entire project:



Amounts to 9.1 million us Dollar



Financial indicators: Net profits ratio to the sales: 52%, Net profits ratio to the investment 37%



Capital recovery period: Two years







Contact Address: Investment Department



River Nile State.



Tel : 0211822557









Iron Extraction Project



The proposed Location: Bigrawiyya area



Raw materials: The raw iron belt which was formely expolcted by the pharaohs exist in the Bigrawiyya belt area with quantities not less than

750 million tons.



The targeted productive capacity: amounts to USD 100 millions.



Annual cost of production: amount to USD 362 million



Sales returns: amounts to USD 550 million



Annual net profits: amount to USD 100 million.



Financial indicators:



Net profits ratio to Sales : 34%



Net profits ratio to investment : 100%



Capital recovery period: One year



Relative advantages of the project: Electricity is considered the principal element in the costs of production as the project needs annually 3000 megawatt/hour.



The establishment of Kajbar reservoir will make available the electrical energy to this project.



Note: The establishment of the project requires the execution of geological surveys to determine the reserve volume.



Contact Address: Investment Department,



River Nile State:



Tel : 0211822557







Ceramic and Porcelain Production Project



Location of the project: South Matamma.



The targeted productive capacity:



The project aims to produce 3,000 m2 annually.



Cost of Investment: The volume of the required investment is estimated around 31,7 millions US Dollar.



The return of the project’s annual sales: 63 million US Dollar.



Costs of Production: A sum of 48,9 million US Dollar.



Annual net profits: 14.1 million US Dollar.



Financial indicators:



Net profits ratio to sales : 17.4



Net profit ratio to investments : 32.2%.



Internal return average : 39.6%



Capital Recovery Period: 3 years



Contact Address: Investment Department



River Nile State,



Tel: 0211822557







Cement Production Project



The proposed Location: Five factories will be established as follows:



· Two factories in west Berber area.



· One factory in Abu Hamad area.



· One factory in Ebiediyya area.



· One factory in Atbara town.



The designed productive capacity for each project:



Each project aims to produce 325,000 ton cement/year.



Investment for each project:



The Total investment cost: 55,1 million US Dollars.



The annual project sales, ‘ for each project’.



The project gross return when it works with full capacity:



29.2 million US Dollar.



Annual cost of production: 10.2 US Dollar.



Annual total profit for the project : 19 million US Dollar



Financial Indicators:



Net profits ratio to the Sales = 65%



Net profits ratio to the investment = 35%



Period of capital Recovery: Three year



Contact Address : Investment Department,



River Nile State



Tel : 0211822557









Mica Production Project



Location of Project: El-Shriek – River Nile State



Targeted productive capacity : 200 ton/day.



Investment Costs : 2.5 million US Dollar.



Annual Sales return : 1.2 million US Dollar



Costs of Production: 0.6 million US Dollar.



Net profits ratio to the Sales = 34%



Net profits ratio to the investment = 100%



Capital recovery period: 3 years



Contact Address : Department of Investment



River Nile State



Tel : 0211822557



http://www.sudaninvest.org/English/Projects-Industry.htm

investment the gold in Sudan

The possibility of  investment the gold in Sudan

Sudan issues 50 more gold exploration licenses
Sudan's govt. has issued 50 licenses to 73 firms to explore gold and other minerals, as it tries to grow its small gold production to compensate for the loss of most of its oil reserves to newly independent South Sudan.

Posted: Monday , 31 Oct 2011
KHARTOUM (Reuters) -
African gold producer Sudan has handed out 50 more licenses to 73 firms to explore gold and other minerals, state news agency SUNA said on Sunday.

Sudan is trying to expand its small gold production to compensate for the loss of most of its oil reserves to South Sudan which became independent in July.

The new licenses allow gold exploration in around eleven states, Minerals Minister Abdelbagi Gailani Ahmed told SUNA, adding that now seven firms were producing gold. The rest is still at the exploration stage.
To date, Sudan has handed out around 200 gold exploration licenses.
Ahmed reiterated Sudan would build at the start of next year a refinery with capacity of 150 tonnes of gold and 30 tonnes of silver.
In total, Sudan expects to produce about 70 tonnes of gold in 2011, he said. Only an estimated 6 to 7 tonnes gold will come from regular mines. The rest is being produced by more than 200,000 local Sudanese attracted by a gold rush whose exact output is hard to verify

المصطلحات الجيلوجيا

المصطلحات العلمية في الجيولوجيا



1. (علم الجيولوجيا ) علم يختص بالبحث في كل شيء يتعلق بالأرض.

2. (الجيولوجيا الكونية ) أحد فروع الجيولوجيا يختص بدراسة أصل الأرض وصلتها بالأجرام السماوية.

3. (الجيولوجيا التركيبية ) علم يختص بدراسة بناء الكتل الصخرية وتصدع القشرة الأرضية

4. (وصف الطبقات ) علم يبحث في تتابع طبقات الصخور وترتيبها في نظام زمني.

5. (الجيولوجيا الهندسية )علم يهتم بدراسة الخواص الميكانيكية والهندسية للصخور.

6. ( الاستشعار عن بعد ) علم يختص بدراسة واستخدام صور المركبات الفضائية والأقمار الصناعية.

7. (جيولوجيا البحار ) علم يعطي معلومات عن البحار والرسوبيات والصخور التي تكون قاع البحر.

8. ( الجيو كيمياء ) علم يهتم بدراسة توزيع العناصر المختلفة في القشرة الأرضية.

9. ( الكون ) كل ما خلقه الله مرئيا كان أم غير مرئي .

10. ( المجرة ) نظام نجمي يتكون من آلاف ملايين النجوم والسدم.

11. (المجموعة الشمسية ) نظام نجمي فريد يتكون من نجم واحد هو الشمس وتسعة كواكب.

12. ( الأقمار ) كواكب صغيرة تخضع لجاذبية كواكب أكبر منها وتدور حولها.

13. ( الكويكبات ) وهي كتل صخرية متفاوتة الحجم تدور ما بين المريخ والمشتري.

14. ( الشهب)بقايا كويكبات تحترق بصورة كاملة أثناء احتكاكها بالغلاف الجوي.

15. ( النيازك ) بقايا كويكبات تحترق بصورة جزئية وتسقط على الأرض.

16. ( المذنبات ) كتل من الثلج وغازات متجمدة وقطع من الصخور.

17. ( السديم ) مادة أولية عبارة عن كتل غازية وغبارية نشأ منها الكون.

18. ( التمايز الكيميائي ) هبوط العناصر الثقيلة وطفو المكونات الخفيفة.

19. ( اللب الداخلي ) أحد مكونات الكتلة الصلبة للأرض غني بالحديد والنيكل.

20. ( الوشاح ) نطاق صخري ترتفع درجة حرارته كلما تعمقنا فيه.

21. ( اللب الخارجي ) نطاق فلزي مصهور من ضمن مكونات الكتلة الصلبة للأرض.

22. ( الغلاف الجوي ) جزء من كوكب الأرض يحمينا من أشعة الشمس الحارقة والإشعاعات الخطيرة.

23. ( الغلاف المائي) كتلة ديناميكية من الماء في حركة مستمرة من البحار والمحيطات.

24. ( القشرة القارية ) تماثل في تركيبها صخر الجرانيت وتسمى السيال.

25. ( القشرة المحيطة ) تماثل في تركيبها صخر البازلت وتسمى السيما.

26. ( الحيود المحيطية ) سلاسل جبلية عالية تقع في منتصف المحيطات.

27. ( الخنادق أو الأغوار ) تجاويف عميقة جدا في قاع المحيطات تكون مقوسة الشكل عادة.

28. ( الماجما ) الصهير الذي نشأت من الصخور النارية بأنواعها.

29.( اللافا ) هي الماجما بعد خروجها على سطح الأرض وفقدانها للغازات.

30. ( التعرية ) تفتيت الصخور وتحليلها ثم نقل النواتج إلى أماكن أخرى.

31. ( التجوية ) تفتيت الصخور وتحليلها بواسطة الجوية السائدة في الغلافين الجوي والمائي.

32. ( الحدود المتباعدة ) هي نطاقات تبتعد فيها الألواح عن بعضها تاركة فراغ فيما بينها.

33. ( الإندساس ) مناطق يتم فيها ابتلاع اللوح المحيطي.

34. ( الحدود المتقاربة ) نطاقات تقترب فيها الألواح من بعضها.

35. ( صخور الأوفيولايت ) تنشأ نتيجة انزلاق شرائح من القشرة المحيطة فوق الجزء القارى.

36. ( حدود الصدوع الناقلة ) نطاقات تحدث فيها زحزحة للألواح بالنسبة لبعضها البعض في اتجاهات أفقية ولكن متضادة.

37. ( البراكين ) تراكمات من اللافا على سطح القشرة الأرضية وتصلبها بحيث تكون قبابا أو جبالا مميزة.

38. ( طفوح اللافا )تتميز بإنخفاض نسبة السليكا مما يجعل درجة لزوجتها منخفضة وقدرتها على الحركة والإنسياب لمسافات كبيرة.

39. ( المواد الفتاتية البركانية ) مواد مقذوفة بجانب قصبة البركان مكونة تركيب مخروطي وتختلف في أحجامها.

40. ( القصبة ) وهي أنبوب أسفل فوهة البركان .

41.( المخروط ) جبل أو قبة من المواد المنصهرة التي قذفها البركان.

42. ( براكين درعية ) طفوح بازلتيه ونسبة قليلة من المواد الفتاتية وتأخذ شكل تركيب قبوي ذو انحدار لطيف.

43.( براكين المخاريط الفتاتية ) فتات بركاني مقذوف تتميز بالإنحدار الشديد.

44. ( طفوح الشقوق ) كميات كبيرة من المواد البركانية تخرج من الشقوق والكسور في القشرة الأرضية.

45.( النقاط الساخنة ) نقاط تتصاعد منها الماجما خلال اللوح الى سطح الأرض.

46. ( الزلازل ) حركات أرضية سريعة تنتاب القشرة الأرضية في فترات متقطعة ومرات عديدة.

47. ( زلازل ضحله ) نوع من الزلازل يحدث بالقرب من سطح الأرض وحتى عمق 33كم .

48. ( السيزموجراف ) جهاز يستخدم لتسجيل الزلازل من حيث شدتها ووقت حدوثها

49)علم البلورات crystallography
علم يدرس ترتيب الذرات في المواد الصلبة , ذلك أن معظم المعادن المكونة للقشرة الأرضية عبارة عن مواد صلبة متبلورة .

50)علم البيئة القديمة paleoecology
وهو يختص بتحديد البيئات التي كانت تعيش فيها الكائنات الحية في الفترات المختلفة من تاريخ الأرض . ويمكن اعتبار هذا العلم امتداد لعلم الحفريات.

51)علم المعادن mineralogy
علم يدرس المعادن وطرق الكشف عنها وتكوينها

52)علم الصخور petrology
وهو يختص بدراسة الصخور التي تتكون من معادن .
ولهذا العلم جانبان : أحدهما وصفي , والغرض منه معرفة الصخور وتصنيفها. وهو علم وصف الصخور petrography , أما الثاني فهو تفسيري ويختص بنشأة الصخور

53)علم الجيولوجيا التركيبية structural geology
وهو يهتم بالتراكيب الجيولوجية الناتجة عن الحركات الأرضية , ويقوم بوصف وتصنيف هذه التراكيب ودراسة نشأتها .

54)علم الحركات الأرضية أو الجيوتكتونيا geotectonics
وهو يهتم بدراسة تطور التراكيب الجيولوجية وعلاقتها بعمليات الترسيب , ويتضمن هذا العلم أيضا نظرة تاريخية إلى تطور التركيب الجيولوجية , لذلك فهو يعتمد على الجيولو جيا التاريخية .


55)علم الحفريات أو الباليونتوجيا paleontology
وهو يختص بدراسة الحفريات أي بقايا الكائنات الحية في الصخور الطبقية .

56)علم الطبقات stratigraphy
وهو يقوم بتصنيف طبقات الأرض المتكونة من صخور طبقية من حيث صفاتها الصخرية ومحتوياتها الحفرية وتاريخ وظروف تكوينها .


57)الجيولوجيا التاريخية historical geology
هذا العلم يقوم بربط المعلومات التي تجمعها كل العلوم الخاصة بالأرض لفهم تاريخ تطور القشرة الأرضية من حيث التغيرات الجغرافية والتركيبية (الحركات الأرضية) والمناخية والبيولوجية .

58)الجيولوجيا الاقتصادية economic geology
وهو علم يسعى إلى دراسة المعادن التي لها أهمية اقتصادية , وهدف هذه الدراسات ايجاد مبادئ للتنقيب عن هذه المعادن ولتقويمها تقويما اقتصاديا

59)الجيولوجيا الهندسية engineering geology
يتضمن هذا العلم دراسة الخواص الميكانيكية و الهندسية للصخور من أجل إقامة المنشآت الهندسية المختلفة كالمباني الضخمة والأنفاق والجسور والسدود والآبار وغيرها


60)جيولوجيا النفط petroleum geology
يتضمن الطرق المتعددة للتنقيب عن النفط , ويعتمد هذا العلم على علم الطبقات والجيولوجيا التركيبية

61)جيولوجيا المياه hydrology
يتضمن هذا العلم الطرق المتعددة للبحث عن المياه الجوفية , ولتقويم الأجسام المائية السطحية وتحت السطحية للاستفادة منها .

62)جيولوجيا المناجم mining geology
وهي تتضمن طرق حفر المناجم في الأجسام المعدنية الاقتصادية المختلفة

PHOSPHATE ROCK

PHOSPHATE ROCK

(Data in thousand metric tons unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: Phosphate rock ore was mined by 6 firms at 12 mines in 4 States and upgraded to an estimated 26.1 million tons of marketable product valued at $1.3 billion, f.o.b. mine. Florida and North Carolina accounted for more than 85% of total domestic output; the remainder was produced in Idaho and Utah. Marketable product refers to beneficiated phosphate rock with phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5) content suitable for phosphoric acid or elemental phosphorus production. More than 95% of the U.S. phosphate rock mined was used to manufacture wet-process phosphoric acid and superphosphoric acid, which were used as intermediate feedstocks in the manufacture of granular and liquid ammonium phosphate fertilizers and animal feed supplements. Approximately 45% of the wet-process phosphoric acid produced was exported in the form of upgraded granular diammonium and monoammonium phosphate (DAP and MAP, respectively) fertilizer, and merchant-grade phosphoric acid. The balance of the phosphate rock mined was for the manufacture of elemental phosphorus, which was used to produce phosphorus compounds for a variety of food-additive and industrial applications.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010e

Production, marketable 30,100 29,700 30,200 26,400 26,100

Sold or used by producers 30,200 31,100 28,900 25,500 28,300

Imports for consumption 2,420 2,670 2,750 2,000 2,100

Consumption1 32,600 33,800 31,600 27,500 30,400

Price, average value, dollars per ton, f.o.b. mine2 30.49 51.10 76.76 127.19 50.00

Stocks, producer, yearend 7,070 4,970 6,340 8,120 5,800

Employment, mine and beneficiation plant, numbere 2,500 2,500 2,600 2,550 2,300

Net import reliance3 as a percentage of

apparent consumption 7 14 4 1 15

Recycling: None.

Import Sources (2006–09): Morocco, 100%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12-31-10

Natural calcium phosphates:

Unground 2510.10.0000 Free.

Ground 2510.20.0000 Free.

Depletion Allowance: 14% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Prepared by Stephen M. Jasinski [(703) 648-7711, sjasinsk@usgs.gov, fax: (703) 648-7757]

119

PHOSPHATE ROCK

Events, Trends, and Issues: In 2010, phosphate rock consumption and trade increased worldwide after depressed market conditions in 2008 and 2009. U.S. production was about the same as in 2009, as companies attempted to lower stocks of phosphate rock that had accumulated over the previous year. Domestic phosphoric acid and phosphate fertilizer production increased over that of 2009. The world spot price of phosphate rock began 2010 around $90 per ton and increased in the third quarter to around $150 per ton.

A new 3.9-million-ton-per-year phosphate rock mine in northern Peru began operation in July. The leading U.S. phosphate rock producer acquired a 35% share of the joint venture between the Brazilian and Japanese owners of the mine. The U.S. company will have the right to purchase up to 35% of the annual phosphate rock output to supplement its domestic phosphate rock production.

A new 5- million-ton-per-year phosphate rock mine began operation in Saudi Arabia late in 2010. The associated phosphate fertilizer plant was to open in 2011. World mine production capacity was projected to increase to 228 million tons by 2015 through mine expansion projects in Algeria, Brazil, China, Israel, Jordan, Syria, and Tunisia, and development of new mines in Australia, Kazakhstan, Namibia, and Russia.

World Mine Production and Reserves: Significant revisions were made to reserves data for Morocco, using information from the Moroccan producer and a report by the International Fertilizer Development Center. Reserves information for Russia was revised using official Government data and may not be comparable to the reserves definition in Appendix C. Reserves data for Algeria, Senegal, and Syria were revised based on individual company information.

Mine production Reserves4

2009 2010e

United States 26,400 26,100 1,400,000

Algeria 1,800 2,000 2,200,000

Australia 2,800 2,800 82,000

Brazil 6,350 5,500 340,000

Canada 700 700 5,000

China5 60,200 65,000 3,700,000

Egypt 5,000 5,000 100,000

Israel 2,700 3,000 180,000

Jordan 5,280 6,000 1,500,000

Morocco and Western Sahara 23,000 26,000 50,000,000

Russia 10,000 10,000 1,300,000

Senegal 650 650 180,000

South Africa 2,240 2,300 1,500,000

Syria 2,470 2,800 1,800,000

Togo 850 800 60,000

Tunisia 7,400 7,600 100,000

Other countries 8,620 9,500 620,000

World total (rounded) 166,000 176,000 65,000,000

World Resources: Domestic reserves data were based on U.S. Geological Survey and individual company information. Phosphate rock resources occur principally as sedimentary marine phosphorites. The largest sedimentary deposits are found in northern Africa, China, the Middle East, and the United States. Significant igneous occurrences are found in Brazil, Canada, Russia, and South Africa. Large phosphate resources have been identified on the continental shelves and on seamounts in the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean.

Substitutes: There are no substitutes for phosphorus in agriculture.

eEstimated.

1Defined as phosphate rock sold or used + imports.

2Marketable phosphate rock, weighted value, all grades.

3Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for Government and industry stock changes.

4See Appendix C for resource/reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

5Production data for China do not include small artisanal mines.

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2011

http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/phosphate_rock/mcs-2011-phosp.pdf

Reservoirs of Ancient Lava Shaped Earth

Geological history has periodically featured giant lava eruptions that coat large swaths of land or ocean floor with basaltic lava, which hardens into rock formations called flood basalt. New research from Matthew Jackson and Richard Carlson proposes that the remnants of six of the largest volcanic events of the past 250 million years contain traces of the ancient Earth's primitive mantle -- which existed before the largely differentiated mantle of today -- offering clues to the geochemical history of the planet.

Scientists recently discovered that an area in northern Canada and Greenland composed of flood basalt contains traces of ancient Earth's primitive mantle. Carlson and Jackson's research expanded these findings, in order to determine if other large volcanic rock deposits also derive from primitive sources.

Information about the primitive mantle reservoir -- which came into existence after Earth's core formed but before Earth's outer rocky shell differentiated into crust and depleted mantle -- would teach scientists about the geochemistry of early Earth and how our planet arrived at its present state.

Until recently, scientists believed that Earth's primitive mantle, such as the remnants found in northern Canada and Greenland, originated from a type of meteorite called carbonaceous chondrites. But comparisons of isotopes of the element neodymium between samples from Earth and samples from chondrites didn't produce the expected results, which suggested that modern mantle reservoirs may have evolved from something different.

Carlson, of Carnegie's Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, and Jackson, a former Carnegie fellow now at Boston University, examined the isotopic characteristics of flood basalts to determine whether they were created by a primitive mantle source, even if it wasn't a chondritic one.

They used geochemical techniques based on isotopes of neodymium and lead to compare basalts from the previously discovered 62-million-year-old primitive mantle source in northern Canada's Baffin Island and West Greenland to basalts from the South Pacific's Ontong-Java Plateau, which formed in the largest volcanic event in geologic history. They discovered minor differences in the isotopic compositions of the two basaltic provinces, but not beyond what could be expected in a primitive reservoir.

They compared these findings to basalts from four other large accumulations of lava-formed rocks in Botswana, Russia, India, and the Indian Ocean, and determined that lavas that have interacted with continental crust the least (and are thus less contaminated) have neodymium and lead isotopic compositions similar to an early-formed primitive mantle composition.

The presence of these early-earth signatures in the six flood basalts suggests that a significant fraction of the world's largest volcanic events originate from a modern mantle source that is similar to the primitive reservoir discovered in Baffin Island and West Greenland. This primitive mantle is hotter, due to a higher concentration of radioactive elements, and more easily melted than other mantle reservoirs. As a result, it could be more likely to generate the eruptions that form flood basalts.

UK airports flight information: Volcanic ash latest

UK airports flight information: Volcanic ash latest

Tuesday, 24 May 2011

Passengers wait with their luggage at Glasgow Airport (PA)

The European air traffic agency Eurocontrol said that between 200 and 250 flights have been cancelled in Europe.

 The disruption is expected to spread to some northern England airports later today.

The eruption of the Grimsvotn volcano has already led to airlines cancelling a number of flights to and from Irish and Scottish airports.

 Shortly after 9.30am today, air traffic control company Nats said "an area of volcanic ash" was forecast to affect some parts of the UK between 1pm and 7pm today.

 Nats said airports remained open but that services from Londonderry, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Prestwick, Newcastle, Carlisle, Durham Tees Valley and Cumbernauld airports may be affected.

Nats said passengers should check with their airline before travelling to these airports.

The airports listed by Nats could all possibly experience high- level densities of ash.
Earlier Nats had said air services at Aberdeen, Inverness, Benbecula, Barra and Tiree airports could be affected until 1pm. The latest bulletin from the company suggested that these airports might be free of ash later today.

In the meantime, airlines have already axed many flights to and from Scotland, with British Airways not operating any flights between London and Scotland before 2pm.
Scots regional airline Loganair scrapped 38 flights and Irish carrier Aer Lingus said it had cancelled 12 flights to and from Glasgow, Aberdeen and Edinburgh.
British Airways announced that it would not operate any flights between London and Scotland before 2pm.
EasyJet also cancelled its flights from Glasgow until lunchtime.
At Glasgow today, most passengers whose flights had already been cancelled did not make their way to the airport.
Passengers with holiday companies Thomson and Thomas Cook were waiting for buses to take them to Manchester to pick up later flights.

The airport's cafes were packed and people sat on their suitcases or tried to catch up on sleep as they waited for news.

Guy McKinven, from the Clyde Valley area, was travelling with easyJet to Stansted to spend a week with his grandmother.
He said: "You see people shouting and getting upset, but there's nothing you can do.
"It is frustrating, but that's just the situation. EasyJet have been helpful and have told me I can have a refund for my flight.
Despite the flight cancellations today, there were hopes that the latest crisis would not have the same devastating impact as last year's Icelandic volcanic eruption which saw UK airspace shut down and thousands of air services axed.

Transport Secretary Philip Hammond said: "There is some early indication that the scale and power of the eruption might be subsiding a little bit.
"Perhaps it's a little bit too early to be absolutely sure about that, but clearly that's the most important thing. If the ash stops belching out of the volcano then, after a few days, the problem will have cleared, so that's one of the factors.
"The other is the wind speed and direction. At the moment the weather patterns are very volatile which is what is making it quite difficult, unlike last year, to predict where the ash will go."
He added that the public should be assured that airlines would only operate when it was safe to do so.
Ryanair said it carried out a one hour flight 41,000ft over Scotland this morning in the so-called "red zone" of the ash cloud from Glasgow Prestwick to Inverness, on to Aberdeen and then south to Edinburgh.

Aviation chiefs have deemed Scottish airspace "high ash concentration".

Ryanair said there was no visible volcanic ash cloud or any other presence of ash and post flight inspections revealed no evidence of ash on the airframe, wings or engines.

The low-cost carrier claimed the red zone was non-existent, mythical and a misguided invention by the UK Met Office and the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA).

Ryanair said it has written confirmation from both its airframe and engine manufacturers that it is safe to operate in the area.

"This morning's verification flight has demonstrated that the UK Met Office's 'red zone' forecasts are totally unreliable and unsupported by any evidence of volcanic ash concentrations whatsoever," Ryanair said.

Read more: http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/local-national/northern-ireland/uk-airports-flight-information-volcanic-ash-latest-16003692.html#ixzz1TAcgSE19

supervisor Geologist Questions

Geology Questions?

BASIC CONCEPTS OF GEOLOGY

1. How long ago was the oil being extracted today formed?

The oil was roughly formed between 30 to 500 million years ago


2. Where do you find oil or gas in rock underground?


We find them in pore or fracture of rocks


3. What are the common reservoir rocks?


There are sandstone, limestone and dolomite


4. What sort of rocks are they?


They are mostly sedimentary rocks


5. What is meant by a trap?


A trap is a underground formation which prevent the escape of oil and gas contained in reservoir rock.


6. What is a cap rock?


Cap rock is non-porosity and impermeable to the fluids bellow


7. Do you think overburden pressure can force the reservoir fluids through the cap rock and up to surface if a hole is drilled through the cap rock?


Yes


8. How do oilmen know where to drill?


Generally speaking, that is the job for the petroleum geologist.


9. how can petroleum geologist locate the position where oilmen are to drill?


Petroleum geologist can use the result of seismic surveys (or even aerial surveys) to get information about rock features beneath the surface


10 when and how was the earth originated?


The earth is though to have originated some four to five billion years ago by condensing out of a cloud of cosmic dust.


11.what is the origin of igneous rocks?


Igneous rock is solidified from molten form called magma.(molten melt)


12.how many kinds of rocks have been considered so far?


Three kinds


13.what are they ?


they are igneous rock, sedimentary rock and metamorphic rock.


14.if metamorphic rocks are subjected to even more heat, they may be melted and become magma rocks, do you agree?


Yes ,I agree. (ignore and igneous inflame)


15.among igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks and sedimentary rocks, which one is more important to petroleum geology?


Of course,the sedimentary rock is more important than the rest.


16.why?


because most oil and gas accumulations occurs in sedimentary rock.


phenomenon appearance phenomena


17.where can we see some samples originally deposited in an ancient sea?


Some remains of marish shells can be found in some hightest mountains and in deepest oil wells.


18.what is the most common kind of deformation?


The most common kind of deformation is the buckling of the layers into a fold.


.are folds the most common structure in mountain chains


yes ,folds are the most common structure both in present and former mountain chains.


20.what are anticlines?


Anticlines are upfolds or arches structure of the mountain chains.


21.and synclines?


Downfolds or troughs are synclines.


22．Folds, usually,have only one form, is that right?


No. folds have many forms.


23.folds are often symmetrical, are not they?


yes and no. they may be symmetrical or asymmetrical


24.how do you describe faults?


Faults are described according to their present attitude by various names.


25.how many kinds of faults are classified?


There are four kinds of faults.


26.what are they ?


they are normal,reverse,thrust and lateral.


27.what are rotational faults and upthrusts?


Rotational faults and upthrusts are variations of normal and reverse faulting.


28.how many kinds of oil seeps are there in petroleum geology?


There are two general kinds.


29.what are these two kinds of oil seeps?


Seepage up --dip and seepage along fractures.


30.are there any other geophysical methods used to find suitable structure for petroleum accumulation?


Yes ,there are.


31.could you tell me what these methods are?


We can find favorable structures for petroleum accumulation using gravimeter and magnetometer .


32.what is porosity?


Porosity is a measure of the pore space in the body of reservoir rocks, usually expressed as a percent of a void space per unit volume of rock.


33.what is permeability?


Permeability is a measure of ease with which a fluid flows through the connected pore spaces of a reservoir rock.


34. is it important to predict sand trends in exploiting sandstone reservoirs?


Yes ,but not only the prediction of sand trends but also the prediction of pore space distribution.


35．What is needed to get a petroleum accumulation ?


there are three points in dealing with the question.


36.what is the first point,please?


Firstly ,there must be a source of oil and gas.


37.and your second point?


Secondly,the existence of a porous bed which is permeable enough to permit the oil and gas to flow through it the reservoir rock.


38.and the last one .


a trap ,which is a barrier to flow fluid so that accumulation can occur against it


39.where did oil and gas originated ?


oil and gas originated from decayed organic matter in sedimentary rock.


40．What does the word “migration”mean in petroleum geology?


After generation ，the dispersed hydrocarbons in the fine grained source rocks must be concentrated by migration to a reservoir。Such a process is called migration 。


41．How are the driving forces behind migration ？


the driving forces behind migration are provided by the weight of the overlying rocks，circulating of groung water and gravity。


42．What are those forces behind migration?


The driving forces are the forces necessary to expel the hydrocarbons and to move them through the more porousbeds or fractures to regions of lower pressure.


43．Do you think gravity plays some part in the migration ？


yes ，gravity plays a role of separating gas ，oil and water。


44．What about the distribution of fluids in a reservoir rock？


The distribution of fluids deponds on their densities and on the capillary properties of the rocks。


45．If a reservoir rock contains uniform pores，and if the pore are evenly distributed，what will the distribution of fluids be like in a trap， then？


In this case ，there will be three zones of fluids in the trap。


46．What are the three zones in a trap ，please？


An upper zone( or gas cap) ,a middle zone and a lower zone .


47．What are contained in the three zones respectively？


The rock pores in the upper zone are filled mainly by gas.


48．And the middle zone and the bottom zone？


The middle is filled mainly by oil and gas in solution and the lower water


49．Is there any water in the middle zone？


A certain amount of water always occurs together with oil in middle zone。


50．What is the usual proportion of water to oil in the middle zone？


The proportion of water to oil is usually from 10 to 30 percent。


51．Does water occur in the gas cap?


Yes ,it does.but the proportion of water to gas is frequently lower than the proportion of water to oil.


52．Is there a special name for the water found in the oil and gas zones？


Yes，there is。It is called “interstitial water”or“connate”


53．Does the crude oil in a trap contain natural gas in solution under pressure?


Yes ,it does. It is the local pressure and temperature conditions that keep the gas in solution with the oil.


54．How does the natural gas come from crude oil？


It is quite simple 。（quite） simple.when the crude oil rises to the surface ,the pressure drops. And-----


55．Oh ,I see,as the crude oil rises to the surface the pressure has dropped enough, the gas comes out of solution?.


Yes ，you are right。


56．Why are gas wells and most wells initially flowing well？


The basic production mechanism in naturally flowing wells is the result of pressure differences。


57．If the bottom hole pressure resulting from the hydrostatic head is lower than formation pressure the oil will move through the pores of the reservoir rock and out into the bottom of well bore ，is that right？


Yes ，you are right。


58．How many factors affect the flow rate of reservoir crude？


Four factors。


59. what are the four factors？


Bottom-hole pressure，formation pressure，rock permeabiliy，and the viscosity of the oil。


60．What kind of reservoir has the hightest permeabilities of all?


Of course the fracture d reservoir。


61．What is a wet gas？


If natural gas contains a relatively large quantity of the other heavier hydrocabons，it is called a wet gas。


62．Is there any other name for natural gas？


Yes ，there is 。


63．What is it？then？


it is called a dry gas。


64．What comes to the top of a well together natural gas？


Lighter liquid hydrocabons，and wanter。


65．In what technical terms that an oilman would use？


In suspension。






V．2 SAMPLING


1． What is sampling ？


Sampling is collecting cuttings at a certain place on a rig。


2． What are the cuttings?


Cuttings are chips of rock cut from the formation by the bit


3． How do the cuttings come out of the bore hole？


They are carried to the surface by the mud circulating up the annulus。


4． Where do you collect cuttings on the rig？


We always collect the cuttings from the shale shaker screen。


5． Whose job is it to collect the cuttings?


Of course ,sample catcher is.but during the initial period of drilling,the mud logger often gives a hand.


6. how does he know when to collect the cuttings?


The sample catcher is told for the collection each time by a mud logger.


7. and how does the mud logger know when to collect the cuttings?


He can respond to the buzzer signal given by the on-line system or he can observe the regular depth interval shown at a panel.


8． is that all?


Of course not。It also depends on the lag time of the cutting transit in the annulus。


9． By the way，what does a sample catcher collect the cuttings with？


Well，he offen collect cuttings with trowel。


10． How much cuttings does the sample catcher collect each time？


That deponds。Normally 500 gram is enough。


11． What should he pay attention to while collecting the cuttings?


To ensure that a representative sample is taken with minimum caving.


12.what is the next step after the collection ?


washing the collected cuttings.


13.why do you have to wash the cuttings?


In order to have a better look at them under the microscope.


14. is it difficult to wash the the cuttings.


Yes and no .it all depends on the rock areas that are drilled.


15.what do you mean by this ?


I mean that the cuttings drilled in hard rock areas,usually quite easily cleaned,but it is more difficult for those in areas and zones of loose sands and shales. tight


16.by the way ,how do you often wash and clean the cuttings?


We wash the cuttings in a sieve-stack..


17.why do you clean the cuttings in sieve-stack?


Because we want to collect the required grain size of cuttings.


18.then what are you going to do with these washed cuttings?


Some of them shall go for examination under the microscope ,and the rest shall be dried in an oven. furnace

So what is groundwater

Water stored underground: vital and vulnerable

So what is groundwater?

Rainwater percolates into the earth. Soil and rock are like a giant sponge, full of holes - typically tiny pores and cracks just millimetres in size. Below the water table, these holes are full of water. This is groundwater. Groundwater slowly travels through connected pores and cracks just centimetres to metres per year.

Water stored underground in cracks and pores

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Protecting the balance

Groundwater storage is like a bank account. The balance falls when withdrawals exceed deposits. Nature makes deposits through rainfall, and withdrawals through leakage of groundwater to streams and the ocean. Our wells represent further withdrawals. If total withdrawals exceed deposits, we deplete our groundwater storage. Do we know if we are draining our account?

Water table ups and downs through the seasons
The amount of water stored underground changes through the seasons. As winter and spring rains infiltrate the ground, stored groundwater increases and the water table rises. When the rains stop, the water table falls as groundwater leaks into streams and the ocean. Well pumping also removes water and lowers the water table. Excessive pumping of groundwater can result in long-term depletion of groundwater storage.

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Underground lakes and rivers?

Not on Bowen Island. Large underground streams and lakes only occur in limestone cave systems. Limestone is unique as it dissolves in water, allowing caves to form. Bowen Island's granitic and volcanic rocks do not dissolve in water and so lack cave systems.

Aquifers yield water via wells

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Tapping into water stored underground

Any body of rock or sediment that yields useful amounts of water is an aquifer. Bowen Island has two types of aquifer: fractured rock, and sand and gravel layers. The amount of water stored in fractured rock is typically limited, and these aquifers can run low during the summer drought. Sand and gravel can store more water and these aquifers are less likely to dry up in the summer. Shallow- dug wells can dry up as the water table falls during the summer.

Groundwater flows from upland recharge areas to valley discharge areas

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Ensuring our aquifers replenish

Most recharging of aquifers occurs in forested uplands and valley slopes, but land clearing, road building, and ditching reduce water infiltration by creating impermeable surfaces and diverting water into ditches and streams. Infiltration ponds along ditches can increase the return of water into the groundwater system.

Excessive pumping can reduce flow in streams

Okay

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Oops! I dried up the stream
Groundwater springs feed streams year-round. They are the only source of stream water during the dry season. A pumped well draws down the nearby water table. Excessive pumping for an extended period of time can lower the water table over a broad area. This can divert groundwater from streams and even cause streams to dry up. Nothing damages a stream like taking away its water!

Overpumping

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Are we depleting our groundwater?
To determine whether we are overpumping our island aquifers, we need a series of groundwater observation wells on Bowen Island. These are unused wells where water table levels can be regularly checked to determine long-term trends. Some groundwater monitoring has started on Bowen Island, but more observation wells are needed.

What is mean groundwater

What is groundwater?

When rain falls to the ground, the water does not stop moving. Some of it flows along the surface to streams or lakes, some of it is used by plants, some evaporates and returns to the atmosphere, and some sinks into the ground. Imagine pouring a glass of water onto a pile of sand. Where does the water go? The water moves into the spaces between the particles of sand.
Groundwater is water that is found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil, sand and rock. Groundwater is stored in--and moves slowly through--layers of soil, sand and rocks called aquifers. Aquifers typically consist of gravel, sand, sandstone, or fractured rock, like limestone. These materials are permeable because they have large connected spaces that allow water to flow through. The speed at which groundwater flows depends on the size of the spaces in the soil or rock and how well the spaces are connected.





The area where water fills the aquifer is called the saturated zone (or saturation zone). The top of this zone is called the water table. The water table may be located only a foot below the ground’s surface or it can sit hundreds of feet down.
Groundwater can be found almost everywhere. The water table may be deep or shallow; and may rise or fall depending on many factors. Heavy rains or melting snow may cause the water table to rise, or heavy pumping of groundwater supplies may cause the water table to fall.
Water in aquifers is brought to the surface naturally through a spring or can be discharged into lakes and streams. Groundwater can also be extracted through a well drilled into the aquifer. A well is a pipe in the ground that fills with groundwater. This water can be brought to the surface by a pump. Shallow wells may go dry if the water table falls below the bottom of the well. Some wells, called artesian wells, do not need a pump because of natural pressures that force the water up and out of the well.
Groundwater supplies are replenished, or recharged, by rain and snow melt. In some areas of the world, people face serious water shortages because groundwater is used faster than it is naturally replenished. In other areas groundwater is polluted by human activities.
In areas where material above the aquifer is permeable, pollutants can readily sink into groundwater supplies. Groundwater can be polluted by landfills, septic tanks, leaky underground gas tanks, and from overuse of fertilizers and pesticides. If groundwater becomes polluted, it will no longer be safe to drink.
Groundwater is used for drinking water by more than 50 percent of the people in the United States, including almost everyone who lives in rural areas. The largest use for groundwater is to irrigate crops.
It is important for all of us to learn to protect our groundwater because of its importance as a source of water for drinking and irrigation.